Abstract

Currently, research on the teaching strategies used by university teachers, learning assessment strategies, as well as the promotion of learning strategies in their students, has developed remarkably both nationally and internationally. In this regard, a study was conducted whose main purpose was to comprehensively analyze the teaching strategies used by university teachers attached to undergraduate/faculties of education, together with the learning assessment tools that apply in their academic practice. At the same time, it was interested in exploring the learning strategies that they try to promote in their students based on their teaching action. The study was located in two different educational contexts: the Bachelor of Education Sciences of the Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (UABC, Mexico) and the Faculty of Education of the Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM, Spain). A non-probabilistic sample of 24 teachers (19 from UCM and 5 from UABC) was considered, to whom a semi-structured interview was applied. At a general level, 3 dimensions were identified (teaching strategies, learning strategies and evaluation of learning), 6 subdimensions and 18 categories of analysis (teaching-learning strategies focused on students, teachers or educational content; institutional factors that impact the use of teaching-learning strategies, among others).

Introduction

During the last decades, research on the teaching strategies used by teachers at university level, the evaluation strategies that apply to the contents taught, as well as the learning strategies that they try to promote in their students, is of great importance both nationally and internationally. (Álvarez Méndez, 2001; Díaz y Hernández, 2002; Monereo, Castelló, Clariana, Palma y Pérez, 2007; Donche, De Maeyer, Coertjens y Van Petegem, 2007; Padilla Carmona y Gil Flores, 2008; Ramos, Perales y Pérez, Carbonell, 2009; Carbajosa, 2011; Soriano Rodríguez, 2012; Ortega, Rodríguez, Mejía, López, Gutiérrez y Montes, 2014; Kamboj y Kumar, 2015; Javaloyes Sáez, 2016; Shukla y Dungsungnoen, 2016; Gastón, Martínez y Martín, 2016; Zitzelsberger, Coffey, Graham, Papaconstantinou y Anyiman, 2017). This article reports the results of a study which main purpose was to comprehensively analyze the teaching strategies used by university teachers assigned to undergraduate / faculties of education, as well as the learning assessment tools that apply in their academic practice. In addition, there was interest in exploring the learning strategies that teachers try to promote / encourage in their students based on their teaching. Based on these objectives, the study was placed into two different educational contexts: the Bachelor´s Degree in Educational Sciences of the UABC ( Mexico) and the Faculty of Education of the UCM ( Spain).

1. Problem Statement
2. How can teaching-learning strategies be understood and defined in educational contexts? What are the theoretical guidelines that support its conceptual delimitation? What do the teachers refer to when they talk about the teaching-learning strategies they use in their academic practice? What is the perception of teachers regarding the previous questions?
3. The definition of teaching-learning strategies and their implementation in higher education contexts is a transcendent topic at present and has resulted in a multiplicity of conceptual approaches, observing an unavoidable lack of consensus in this regard (Díaz y Hernández, 2002; Monereo et al., 2007; Padilla Carmona y Gil Flores, 2008, Soriano Rodríguez, 2012; Ortega et al., 2014; Javaloyes Sáez, 2016). In this sense, one of the most widely used definitions is the one proposed by Díaz and Hernández ( 2002), who understand teaching strategies as a planned set of reflective, conscious, and flexible procedures that teachers activate and that allow the achievement of significant learning in their students. From this definition, the use of certain techniques is considered: summaries, previous organizers, analogies, conceptual maps, and semantic networks, among others.
4. Based on the foregoing, a leading characteristic is distinguished to understand teaching strategies: these cannot be understood independently of the students’ learning process. In this sense, teaching strategies are aligned with the promotion of learning strategies, so that a teacher´s teaching action seeks the achievement of certain types of learning in students, for example meaningful, rote, discovery, etc. In turn, learning processes have their foundation and support in the strategic actions of teachers, so that teaching and learning strategies are understood as an inseparable marriage.
5. Indeed, as proposed by Monereo et al. ( 2007), the learning strategies are related to the objectives that the teachers draw through the implementation of their teaching strategies. The objectives of the teachers’ pedagogical action point to the promotion of certain learning strategies in the students: these objectives can range from strategies of memorization, repetition, and follow-up of instructions, to strategies of individual or group construction of knowledge. Along with the previously mentioned, the learning strategies used by students are also determined by the evaluation strategies used by teachers ( Padilla Carmona and Gil Flores, 2008): the way to evaluate and the instruments used, affect the study strategies of students, so the evaluation practice can also be considered a learning activity (Álvarez Méndez, 2001).
6. In that sense, an association could be established between teaching strategies and psychological theories of learning that guide and influence teaching actions. In this regard, as proposed by Díaz and Hernández ( 1999), while the teaching strategies included in constructivist theories, for example, aim to develop meaningful learning in students, in behaviorism one can also identify certain teaching strategies aimed at the conditioning of student learning through a mechanism of encouragement and reinforcement from teachers. Within this crossroad, the official discourse at university level has privileged those teaching strategies aligned with the constructivist perspectives of learning and the generation of knowledge (Imbernón, 2006; Donche et al., 2007; Kablan y Kaya, 2014; Shukla y Dungsungnoen, 2016).
7. However, beyond the theoretical development around teaching-learning strategies linked to approaches that promote the active and leading participation of students in educational processes, praxis is far from this discourse. Indeed, as stated by Soriano Rodriguez ( 2012), at university level there is a predominance of expository classes in which the teacher transmits content to their students and privileges evaluation strategies related to the decision making of a summative nature, although resorting to feedback as a formative strategy. In this context, the students’ roles refer mainly to apprentices who depend on the instructional situations organized and carried out by the teachers. This corresponds to the predominance of an application transmission model (Imbernón, 2006), in which the teacher adopts the role of academic expert who implements his teaching action through authoritative and transmissive lessons.
8. On the other hand, it is necessary to highlight the existence of other factors that influence the planning and use of teaching-learning strategies. As highlighted by Martínez ( 2004), the students’ characteristics (cognitive development, prior knowledge, motivational factors) or the intersubjective context (shared knowledge) established among them, should be considered by the teachers when selecting their teaching strategies. On the other hand, Monereo et al. ( 2007) highlights the individual differences between teacher-students, the nature and complexity of the educational contents (declarative, procedural and/or attitudinal), among others, as determinants of the strategies of learning that students use, as well as their attitude an motivation in school activities.
9. The analysis of teaching-learning strategies, as well as of the evaluation methods currently used by teacher of undergraduate / faculty of education, is of the utmost importance since it allows obtaining an overview of how the educational processes are being conducted, coordinated, and executed at university level. This has transcendental social repercussions, since these students will be in charge of the formation of new generations. Therefore, it should be known how teaching-learning strategies are being applied nowadays, how learning processes are being evaluated, and what the perception is in this regard among teachers who form future educational agents.
10. Research Questions

Which teaching-learning and assessment strategies are currently used by university teachers who form educational agents? What is the perception of the university teachers who form educational agents about teaching-learning and assessment strategies being used in their academic practice?

Purpose of the Study

To comprehensively analyze the teaching-learning strategies and learning assessment methods currently used by teachers of the Bachelor´s Degree in Educational Sciences of the UABC, Ensenada campus, and the Faculty of Education of the UCM.

Methods

1. The study was of a qualitative type, which is why it adheres to the interpretative paradigm that aims at the understanding of social realities from the perceptions of the subjects that comprise them. Within education, it is proposed to understand educational phenomena in an intersubjective, holistic, and interactive manner ( Carbajosa, 2011).
2. Spatiotemporal context and participants
3. Two university institutions that offer training programs for educational agents were considered: i) the degree in Educational Sciences of the UABC and ii) the Faculty of Education of the UCM. The degree in Educational Sciences of the UABC aims to trains educational agents focused on areas such as teaching, research, management, or administration of educational institutions. The Faculty of Education of the UCM offers teacher training programs through 4 departments of didactic and educational research, specifically targeting the training of future teachers. In turn, the project was carried out during the period 2016-17.
4. The degree in Educational Sciences of the UABC consists of 6 full-time faculty-researchers who work in teaching, research, and coordination. Moreover, there are 19 subject teachers exclusively performing teaching functions. Of these, a non-probabilistic intentional sample of 4 full-time teachers and 1 subject teacher were selected. In addition, the Faculty of Education of the UCM is made up of a total of approximately 225 teachers, of which a non-probabilistic intentional sample of 19 teachers was selected. In brief, the intentional non-probabilistic sample included a total of 24 teachers from both university institutions (table 1).
5. Table 1. Participants of UCM and UABC

1. Source: own elaboration
2. Instruments and information analysis
3. The in-depth interview was used as a data collection technique. This is understood as a tool that allows the exploration of perceptions, assessments, projections, and beliefs of the subjects around social phenomena, converting the interviewees into interlocutors through communicative action and allowing the interpretation of the investigated phenomena (Robles, 2011, Vargas Jiménez, 2012). Thus, a semi-structured interview guide was constructed, consisting of 3 dimensions and 6 sub-dimensions: i) teaching strategies (definition and use, institutional factors), ii) learning strategies (promotion and encouragement) and iii) learning assessment (functions, strategies, instruments).

On the other hand, the content analysis technique was used to interpret information, identifying codes and analysis categories in the discourses of the participants. This technique is understood as an interpretive procedure of messages, texts, or discourses originated in verbal communicative interactions (Piñuel Raigada, 2002). The stages followed in the qualitative analysis of information were: i) information entry through audio recordings of the interviews, ii) making transcripts, iii) opinions, perceptions, and discourses analysis of the interviewees, iv) identifying categories (conceptual classification of thematic units covered under the same topic) and codes (set of text units that correspond within a category) of analysis.

Results

Below are the main results from the 3 analysis dimensions:

Teaching strategies

Within this dimension, 3 sub-dimensions of analysis were identified: i) definition and use of teaching strategies, ii) resources and means of support, and iii) institutional factors.

Regarding the first sub-dimension, according to the perception of some teachers before defining specific strategies within their practice, a multidimensional range of strategies should be considered from the center of interest that the teacher chooses in order to teach the content: i) strategies focused on the student (learning), ii) in educational content, and iii) in the teacher (teaching). Within the first category of analysis referring to teaching strategies focused on student learning, both pedagogical and extra-pedagogical aspects were recognized. Regarding the pedagogical aspects, the teachers mainly identify the cognitive characteristics of the students ( “… I have never believed that there is a single method. From my point of view, it does not exist because the first thing we have to take into account is the students we have in front of us, and there are times when students are very different…”, UCM teacher), the semester they are studying ( “… It has to do, first, with the course in which the students are in, that when I have given classes in first, I use more, for example, the authoritative class, the very regulated activities, the practices in which I direct … They have more training, I go more for the participative and if they have less, I feel that I need to explain more things, and therefore, I go to the most authoritative part …”, UCM teacher) and motivational or attitudinal factors ( “…Only the one who wants to learn, learns, I am not the cause of learning, each one has to build their own learning, I give them resources, especially bibliographic ones, they have to read a series of articles and they have to read at least two books per group, they do not go to class to take notes, it is the idea that I want to carry out and I take it…”, UCM teacher). Regarding the category of analysis referring to extra-pedagogical factors, they refer mainly to the number of students in the classroom: “… This semester was the first in which I had to have an education group of 20 students and one of 55, so the detail with which you revise one group to the other is outrageous…” ( UABC teacher); “… I recognize that sometimes I tend to give authoritative lessons because I feel that there are many students in class and that to teach the same subject in a different way would be unfeasible for me as the only teacher in the classroom…” ( UCM teacher).

Within the category of analysis referred to teaching strategies focused on educational content, teacher perceptions are bifurcated in 2 ways: i) nature of the contents and ii) type of subject taught. Within the first, according to the perception of some teachers, the strategies are used according to the declarative or procedural approach of the contents: “… It varies depending on the nature of the content … For example, that they know the different scales levels of research measurement, I explain them, I give examples, etc. Then I ask them to get into teams, discuss, and give examples of the different scales …” ( UABC teacher); “… The students really learn things, but they do not learn to do things … Supposedly the way you learn it, stays in declarative knowledge … It has a lot to do with the Spanish tradition, here it is very literary, very declarative, of knowledge reproduction…” ( UCM teacher). On the other hand, other teachers affirm that the use of teaching strategies is influenced by the type of material they teach, distinguishing practical subjects, with greater attention of the students through presentations and investigatory works; and theoretical subjects, more expository and with greater control in the transmission of contents: “… In practical subjects, the first part of the course is worked from maps, reading report formats, it is as if you did guided reading because I structure how to make the format, I ask for essays, I ask for conceptual maps, or any …” ( UABC teacher); “… The second part of the subject that is didactic, therefore practical, so it has a very different approach, I make proposals on didactics, how to tackle the language, how to undertake the teaching of vocabulary, how to undertake the development of metalinguistic skills, to give you an example ...” ( UCM teacher).

In turn, other teachers argue that the teaching strategies they use focus on their role as transmitters of educational content through two guidelines: i) exposure and transmission of content through lectures ( “… It has to do a bit with my teaching style more than with adjustments, which remains constant with a certain independence of the level and characteristics of the subject: I use the authoritative lesson, that is, the traditional, medieval method, the use of unidirectional communication …”, UCM teacher); and ii) participatory exhibition ( “…Fist, it is always expository either by the teacher or by the students, and they always five feedback to each other with questions at the end of the class, a bit like Socratic questioning, that is if I apply it in all the subjects…”, UABC teacher).

For its part, within the sub-dimension of resources and means of support for the execution of teaching strategies, 3 categories of analysis were identified: i) ICT support, such as virtual platforms, digital presentations, and electronic documents ( “… We use the Blackboard platform, then they send to the platform any reading report or conceptual map, or any activity that they are told they have to do, then more or less halfway through we do forums to reinforce the main concepts …”, UABC teacher; “… Any explanation I make verbally I tend to support with a Power Point projection, always, even if it is a basic explanation …”, UCM teacher), ii) specialist guests, depending on the topic to be discussed, professionals or specialists in the contents to be taught are invited (“… In any topic that I deal with I also always invite someone because in this class we invite professionals who are making diagnoses in different areas to come to us to talk about their work, in each thematic unit there are guests …”, UCM teacher) and iii) traditional media, such as a whiteboard, printed documents or manual works related to the contents taught (“… My basic support is the whiteboard and markers because one day the computer suddenly failed, so that is not going to prevent me from giving the class …”, UABC teacher; “… I like them to have fraction models, strips of elongated fractions … Fractions with sectors that take parts of a whole, use counters. So I really like manipulative material ...”, UCM teacher).

Finally, within the teaching strategies dimension, a sub-dimension related to the institutional factors that affect their implementation was identified, distinguishing two analysis categories: i) nonexistence of institutional promotion, referred to the offer and encouragement of teacher training from university institutions with regard to the use of teaching strategies (“… My perception, as always, it is not just now, the thing is that it depends on the will of each one, it pure and hard voluntarism …”, UCM teacher; “… Courses on the use of Moodle have been offered, and right now seminars or meetings are underway on behalf of the University to see how new technologies are used in the classroom. That is to say, I do believe that there have been in terms of technology, but to didactic improvement …”, UCM teacher); and ii) institutional recruitment policies, which refer to the existing disproportionality between the number of full-time and subject teachers or associates in the participating universities, the majority being the latter, which would undermine the quality of teaching offered if there is less commitment in educational research and management tasks (“… In fact, notice that in order to renew the associated professors, of subjects, they are not asked for a teaching expositive evaluation, what they do is cover cheaply, it is to cover with cheap labor the teaching that is missing …”, UCM teacher; “… Many associates who work on something else all week and come here two hours a week, and give their class. That is to say, he is not here all week thinking about how to organize learning so that students become group leaders …”, UCM teacher). The Figure 1 shows the dimension of teaching strategies, sub-dimensions and categories of analysis associated with this dimension:

Figure 1. Dimension of teaching strategies, sub-dimensions and categories of analysis

Source: own elaboration

Learning strategies

Within this dimension was the aim of investigating learning strategies that teachers promote in their students, from their teaching action around educational content. Thus, a sub-dimension of promotion / encouragement of learning strategies was distinguished, within which 3 analysis categories were identified: i) student-centered learning, ii) content-centered learning, and iii) teaching-centered learning.

Within the category of analysis related to student-centered learning, four subcategories were distinguished: i) learning based on competency-based approach (“… In my classes I try to focus primarily on the development of competencies and types of learning, one more of a declarative conceptual type is the one that I try to promote with the authoritative lesson more or less participative and then knowledge that has to see more applied competencies than traditionally in psychology we know it as procedural knowledge …”, UCM teacher); ii) development of critical thinking ( “… The autonomous capacity of thought, that is the capacity of learning that I want them to have, that is, that they know how to critically analyze a text, a movie, a video, a song, whatever, and know how to establish their own judgment, based on argumentation …”, UCM teacher); iii) collaborative group learning ( “… What I do is to generate participation in the student … That is to say, any participation that he may have, not evaluate it as good or bad, but simply as it is, and together with the other colleagues or teams, build the learning, since learning is not given alone, but in the social…”, UABC teacher); and iv) positioned learning ( “… I try to bring them every day experiences, I like to work from the experience they have … Also often use some techniques a bit constructivist to share what we know about a concept to start building from there …”, UCM teacher).

The Figure 2 shows the dimension of learning strategies, sub-dimensions and categories of analysis associated with this dimension:

Figure 2. Dimension of learning strategies, sub-dimensions and categories of analysis

Source: own elaboration

Learning assessment

Finally, in terms of the learning assessment dimension, 2 sub-dimensions and seven analysis categories were identified: i) functions of learning assessment (summative, formative, and a balance between both), and ii) learning assessment strategies / instruments (individual, groups, complementarity of strategies and instruments, and factors that influence the use of learning assessment strategies and instruments).

Regarding the sub-dimension of assessment functions, from the perceptions of the teachers interviewed, 3 analysis categories were identified: i) summative functions, referred to the comprehension of learning assessments in terms of control and decision making in base to final exams (“… We do an objective test, only one at the end of the course, where all the subject goes into theoretical contents, a multiple choice exam, I feel that it is quite well elaborated because I know how to elaborate, I work on this at a research level …”, UCM teacher), as well as in terms of social certification ( “… Obviously in the end you have to assess because you credit them for a function, then you assure society that this person has gone through such, then there is a part there that is a responsibility I have to take …”, UCM teacher); ii) formative functions, referred to the implementation of diagnostic evaluations, verification, and improvement of learning, as well as constant feedback and monitoring to students in the construction of knowledge (“… I use the diagnostic evaluation: what do you know, if you come in blank, if you have an idea, all this helps me prepare, which is the formative assessment because the activities we do, evaluation cuts, partials, in the end we have to submit a number because that number is based on your performance not only in the end, it is a process, it is not at the end of the period …”, UABC teacher); and iii) complementarity of functions, referred to the teaching perceptions that refer to an equidistant position between summative and formative functions of learning assessments (“… The two, the assessment always has to be formative because I return their work as many times as the students ask me to, that is why it is formative, they even come a lot to tutoring because they know that I explain to them one by one, or in groups of three, whatever it is. And it is clearly summative because I have different assessment instruments and I do a summative average the end of the period …”, UCM teacher).

Finally, regarding the sub-dimension of learning assessment strategies / instruments, three analysis categories were identified: i) individual strategies, from the perception of some teachers, the use of individual multiple choice objective exams are highlighted, and a positive look on this type of learning assessment instrument is argumented ( “… I do a written test, a multiple choice test, usually with three types of answers, of which only one is correct. Supposedly I am an expert at building them, so I trust my tests a lot, so usually always in my subjects, students have to pass an individual test with these characteristics …”, UCM teacher); ii) group strategies, referring to the promotion of collaborative group work as an evaluative strategy ( “… the research and essays, everything is in teams, the teams, two types of teams, of situation and of field: the one of situation are the ones you do in class for an activity, and the ones of field are done the entire semester …”, UABC teacher); complementarity of strategies and instruments, from the perception of some teachers a suitable methodological way to evaluate their students refers to the combination of strategies and instruments, both individual and group ( “… There are like 3 or 4 written, individual regulatory exams … Not like only means, multiple choice, an additional exercise, also as a criterion for evaluating the courses, class participation, homework, presentation, team exhibition, everything the student does for their learning …”, UABC teacher); and factors that influence the use of assessment strategies and instruments, from which pedagogical factors were identified, referring to the cognitive characteristics of the students ( “… In higher grades they write an individual essay, then they have a rubric for that essay, I do not give them the rubric at the beginning, I give it when they have stained paper, they have decided the theme, they have thought their ideas well … I do not do that in the first courses, first because they still need elements to be able to have judgment …”, UCM teacher); and extra-pedagogical factors, such as the number of students per group ( “… Size influences the way of evaluation, if they were the smallest groups, surely it would be more formative, I would work by topics and assessing each topic, although I would have a final evaluation because I am convinced, regardless of whether it were two or ten because I believe in final evaluations …”, UABC teacher).

The Figure 3 shows the dimension of learning assessment, sub-dimensions and categories of analysis associated with this dimension:

Figure 31. Dimension of learning assessment, sub-dimensions and categories of analysis

Source: own elaboration

Discussion

1. The teaching task requires the commitment to implement within their practice, those tools that allow enhancing the knowledge of students. It involves creating spaces which seeks and found significant learning in the content, as well as the development of skills in students that allow them to perform appropriate tasks autonomously. In this sense, the role of the teacher in the design, selection and implementation of strategies in the classroom involves a rethinking of essential processes of teaching - learning and general analysis of external and institutional factors involved in its practice.
2. The perception that retrieve the participants of the study towards the operation of the teaching and learning strategies, underpins to conceive them as actions reflected through its experience, not as the only means to develop and strengthen the cognitive characteristics of students, but as a set of multidimensional tools sensitive to the nature of declaratory content, profile and style of teaching. The effectiveness of their implementation is evaluated according to indicators of efficiency, opportunity, cognitive complexity, context, motivation, attitude and problem solving ability.
3. Although it is clear that the teacher is to is to promote participatory active learning environments through the management of reflective teaching strategies, product of a reflective teaching practice, obviously that the teacher may not lead as the only agent a reflective learning process, is required the active and responsible participation of students who will be as main actors of their own learning. In that sense, Acevedo ( 2009) assumes heterogeneity in students, in terms of his personality, strategies for learning, rhythm and motivation toward study. On the other hand, Monroy and Piña ( 2014), indicate that the motivation, personality traits, the conceptions of teaching and the methods used by teachers, the type and amount of content and tasks significantly influence the way students learn.
4. Now, if we start from the premise that students study and learn differently wrap complex aspects that can contribute to the understanding of learning processes in humans ( Bahamon, 2013). The voice of teachers in the study recognizes that the training received as teachers and students is not aimed at teaching to think, they have developed a relationship with knowledge that has not invited them to reflection, therefore, are supported with the implementation of economic strategies as for the development of critical thinking, situated learning, analysis of real cases, resolution of practical problems; This way teachers considered that they built paths staffs who promote facilitate reflective positions around their own learning in students.
5. Teachers recognize the importance of interaction promoted from the reflective teaching process as a natural experience of continuous training, both for the teacher to the student, teacher on the one hand, internalizing the application and resolution of situations of teaching unique and changing and on the other hand, the student generates a conception about their own learning and leads him to wonder about the shape and depth with which we have learned.
6. As to the evaluation of learning outcomes teachers do two questions: from what depends on a student to build a scaffold in one content than another? Not only will depend on the evaluation, but more decisive aspects as the initial motivation for the subject to study, previous knowledge and preparation, teaching strategy, activities in the classroom and without hesitation the assessment strategies used by the teacher also influence. In this sense, the categories of analysis as a result of the participation of teachers and students rescued three 1) summative functions, referred them to monitor and control the teaching takes place during the learning process of the student, 2) strategies and instruments of evaluation, and 3) complementarity of functions. Allowing refer participants to speak of an evaluation involving realize knowledge or skills, acquired continuously and shared, so that evaluation is an activity of learning based on authentic situations and coordinated learning competency (Sánchez and Boroel, 2018). Advocating the perspective of the assessment for learning (Hernández, 2012) or the learning-oriented assessment ( Boud, 2013) within the framework of a higher education based on competences, so that the evaluation should serve a purpose in the learning process University: "make more aware students of what is your level of skills, how you resolve the tasks and what strengths should enhance and 438 weak points must be corrected to confront future learning situations" ( Cano Garcia, 2008, p.10).
7. Finally, fit two interpretations: first, that the thematic teaching, learning and assessment are topics of interest to scholars, claim that seems very convincing since there is an important speech that weaves literature posted nationally and internationally; and the second, this is a field in constant evolution, for example, in cases such as the Spanish context, attention remains in feedback processes. Not we decided more by this interpretation, but with the necessary prudence, since in Latin America there is no claim that we have a dynamic and diversified field.