Predictors of Teaching Performance Among Elementary School Teachers in Public Schools

Introduction

Instructional supervision plays an important role in improving education quality by providing teachers with guidance, feedback, and professional support. Through effective supervision, school principals help teachers improve their teaching methods, strengthen classroom management, and develop their professional competencies. According to Nwankwoala (2020), instructional supervision goes beyond monitoring teacher performance, as it also involves mentoring, coaching, and guiding teachers toward professional excellence. In the Philippines, the Department of Education (DepEd) recognizes school principals as instructional leaders responsible for providing teachers with appropriate supervision and support in implementing the K–12 curriculum and the MATATAG Agenda.

Teacher performance is an important indicator of school success, encompassing instructional delivery, lesson preparation, classroom management, learner assessment, and professional responsibilities. The National Competency-Based Teacher Standards (NCBTS) and the Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST) provide frameworks for identifying the competencies necessary for effective teaching. Oluwakemi (2023) emphasized the relationship between teacher performance and the supervisory support school principals provide. Similarly, Berhanu (2024) identified supervisory practices, decision-making, and access to professional development as factors influencing teacher motivation and effectiveness. However, challenges in educational outcomes remain evident. The Southeast Asia Primary Learning Metrics (SEA-PLM) 2024 assessment, released by UNICEF and SEAMEO in December 2025, reported that Filipino Grade 5 learners continue to experience difficulties in reading and mathematics compared with learners in other Southeast Asian countries. These findings highlight the need to strengthen instructional supervision and provide teachers with continuous professional support (UNICEF & SEAMEO, 2025).

At the local level, observations and informal reports in one district of Misamis Oriental indicate differences in how public elementary schools implement instructional supervision. These include variations in access to professional development, principals' involvement in decision-making, and the provision of feedback following classroom observations. Some teachers say they need more frequent, meaningful feedback, while others see supervision as focused more on evaluation than professional improvement. These situations suggest a gap between the objectives of instructional supervision and its actual implementation in schools.

In response to these concerns, this study aims to determine the relationship between instructional supervision and teacher performance in public elementary schools in one district of Misamis Oriental. Specifically, it examines supervisory practices, support for professional development, and principals' involvement in decision-making. It also assesses teacher performance in terms of instructional delivery, classroom management, and professional responsibilities. The study seeks to provide insights into the relationship between instructional supervision and teacher performance and contribute to improving school leadership and teacher development.

Furthermore, this study is aligned with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4), particularly Target 4.1, which promotes quality primary and secondary education, and Target 4.c, which emphasizes increasing the number of qualified teachers through training and professional development. By examining instructional supervision and teacher performance, this study highlights the importance of effective supervision and professional support in strengthening teaching practices and promoting quality education.

Review of Related Literature

Teacher Performance

Teacher performance refers to how effectively teachers fulfill their instructional and professional responsibilities in accordance with established standards, such as the Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST). It encompasses different but interconnected dimensions, including instructional delivery, classroom management, and professional responsibilities. Examining these dimensions separately provides a clearer understanding of teachers' competencies and areas that require improvement.

Instructional delivery involves the strategies and methods teachers use to facilitate student learning. Castillo (2022) found that instructional supervision improved teachers' lesson delivery and teaching strategies in Hinabangan, Samar. Similarly, Comighud et al. (2020) reported that supervision helped teachers improve lesson planning and curriculum implementation. Classroom management, on the other hand, focuses on maintaining an organized learning environment and encouraging student participation. Daigon and Alcopra (2021) found that effective supervision helped teachers improve classroom management, particularly in maintaining discipline and promoting learner participation in Bukidnon.

Meanwhile, professional responsibilities include lesson planning, record keeping, collaboration with colleagues, and participation in school activities. Dela Cruz (2023) found that teachers who received supervision demonstrated improvements in fulfilling these responsibilities, including timely submission of reports and participation in professional learning activities. These findings suggest that teacher performance involves both classroom instruction and responsibilities beyond the classroom, which may be strengthened through appropriate supervisory support.

Teacher Well-Being

Teacher well-being refers to teachers' professional and psychological functioning. In this study, it is examined through Seligman's PERMA Model (2011), which identifies five dimensions: positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. These dimensions describe different aspects of teachers' experiences and their involvement in their professional responsibilities.

Positive emotion refers to feelings of satisfaction, optimism, and enthusiasm toward teaching. Dacer et al. (2021) found that instructional supervision significantly influenced teachers' job satisfaction in Camarines Norte. Engagement involves teachers' active involvement and dedication to their tasks. Olarte and Tagadiad (2023) reported that supportive supervision was associated with increased teacher engagement and commitment to instructional improvement. Relationships refer to the interactions and connections among teachers, school heads, and colleagues. Ambayec and Lugo (2022) emphasized that collaborative supervision strengthened professional relationships and peer support among teachers in Mati City. Meaning concerns teachers' sense of purpose and the value they associate with their profession, while accomplishment relates to their pursuit of professional growth and achievement. Dela Cruz (2023) found that professional development support was associated with higher self-efficacy and professional accomplishment. These findings indicate that teacher well-being encompasses emotional, social, and professional experiences that are relevant to teachers' performance and development.

Instructional Supervision

Instructional supervision refers to the guidance, monitoring, and support school leaders provide to improve teaching and learning. Hallinger (2020) explained that instructional leadership emphasizes improving instruction through effective supervision, collaboration, and shared leadership. In this study, instructional supervision is examined through three dimensions: supervisory practices, professional development support, and decision-making and goal setting.

Supervisory practices include classroom observation, monitoring instruction, and providing constructive feedback. Comighud et al. (2020) found that supervisory practices in Bayawan City Division were implemented at a high level and were considered useful in improving teaching. Similarly, Daigon and Alcopra (2021) and Castillo (2022) reported that instructional supervision was associated with improvements in lesson delivery and classroom management. Professional development support includes training, coaching, mentoring, and Learning Action Cell (LAC) sessions that help strengthen teachers' competencies. Dela Cruz (2023) associated professional development activities with teacher performance, while Ambayec and Lugo (2022) highlighted their contribution to teachers' motivation and teaching abilities. In addition, Olarte and Tagadiad (2023) found that teacher participation in goal setting was associated with stronger commitment and engagement.

Decision-making and goal setting are also important aspects of instructional supervision because they encourage teacher participation in school improvement. Supportive leadership and inclusive decision-making may contribute to teachers' sense of meaning and professional involvement (Dacer et al., 2021). Moreover, Seligman's PERMA Model (2011) explains teacher well-being as encompassing positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. Viac (2020) and Dacer et al. (2021) associated positive teacher well-being with motivation, resilience, and professional dedication. Similarly, Sumapal and Haramain (2023) highlighted how supportive supervision and professional development contribute to teachers' engagement, professional fulfillment, and relationships with colleagues.

Methods

Research Design

This study employed a descriptive-correlational research design to determine the levels of instructional supervision, teacher well-being, and teacher performance among public elementary school teachers and examine the relationships among these variables. This design involves collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe existing characteristics and determine relationships without manipulating variables or establishing cause-and-effect relationships (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; McCombes, 2023). It was appropriate for examining how instructional supervision and teacher well-being predict teacher performance in the natural school setting.

Participants and Sampling

The participants were 160 public elementary school teachers from the Central and West Districts of the Division of Misamis Oriental. From a total population of 260 elementary teachers, the sample size was determined using the Taro Yamane (1967) formula with a 5% margin of error. The participating teachers also evaluated the instructional supervision practices of 28 school principals in their respective schools. Participation was voluntary, and only teachers who provided informed consent were included. School principals were not included as study participants.

Research Instrument

Data were collected using a three-part survey questionnaire developed based on the study's framework. The first part measured instructional supervision through supervisory practices, professional development support, and decision-making and goal setting. The second part assessed teacher performance in instructional delivery, classroom management, and professional responsibilities, with indicators aligned with the Department of Education's Results-Based Performance Management System (RPMS) and the Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST) (DepEd, 2015, 2017). The third part measured teacher well-being using a version of the PERMA-Profiler, which assesses positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment based on Seligman's (2011) model, as operationalized by Butler and Kern (2016).

Validity and Reliability

The survey instruments underwent expert evaluation, during which panel members reviewed the questionnaire items and provided recommendations that were incorporated into the final instrument. The questionnaire was also pilot-tested with 100 teachers from a district outside the study's coverage. These teachers were excluded from the main study. Reliability was determined using Cronbach's alpha, with values of 0.70 and above considered acceptable (Zakariya, 2022).

The results showed an overall Cronbach's alpha of 0.904 for instructional supervision, 0.805 for teacher well-being, and 0.827 for teacher performance. The respective subdimensions also obtained acceptable reliability coefficients. These results indicated that the questionnaire demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency across the three study variables.

Data Gathering Procedure

Data collection commenced after obtaining the necessary administrative approvals and ethical clearance. The researcher secured permission from the Lourdes College Research Ethics Committee (LC-REC) on March 30, 2026, with approval valid until March 30, 2027. The approved research protocol covered the Central and West Districts of the Division of Misamis Oriental. Permission was also obtained from the authorities of the Division of Misamis Oriental before conducting the study in the selected public elementary schools.

After securing the necessary approvals, the researcher coordinated with school principals to explain the study's purpose and arrange the administration of the questionnaires. The researcher distributed the validated, pilot-tested three-part survey questionnaire to the teacher-participants to gather data on instructional supervision, teacher performance, and teacher well-being. The researcher used printed questionnaires and a secure online survey platform, depending on participants' accessibility and preference. The researcher also coordinated questionnaire distribution and retrieval to ensure an organized data collection process.

After collection, all responses were coded, organized, and stored in a database for statistical analysis. Coded identifiers were used instead of participants' names to maintain the confidentiality of the collected information.

Scoring Procedure

The responses were measured using a five-point Likert scale and interpreted through weighted means. The scale was based on the Department of Education's Individual Performance Commitment and Review Form (IPCRF) rating system. 

Statistical Treatment of Data

The collected data were processed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Frequency counts, percentages, weighted means, and standard deviations were used to determine the levels of instructional supervision, teacher well-being, and teacher performance. Multiple Regression Analysis was employed to determine the extent to which instructional supervision and teacher well-being predict teacher performance. Before conducting the regression analysis, the necessary statistical assumptions were examined, including the assumption of normality through the Normal Q–Q plot.

Ethical Considerations

The study followed the ethical principles outlined in the Belmont Report: Respect for Persons, Beneficence, and Justice. Before participating, teachers were informed about the study's purpose, nature, and procedures, including measures implemented to protect their privacy and confidentiality. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, and participation was entirely voluntary.

Respect for Persons was observed by ensuring that participants understood their rights, including their freedom to decline participation or withdraw from the study at any time without penalty or negative consequences. The researchers upheld beneficence by minimizing potential risks and protecting participants from unnecessary pressure during the research process. The researchers maintained justice by selecting participants according to established criteria and ensuring fair and equal treatment throughout the study.

To protect confidentiality, all responses were coded and stored securely using identifiers instead of participants' names. The collected information was used solely for academic purposes and was accessible only to authorized individuals.

However, the lower emotional support scores reveal an area for development. As Brown (2019) and Raguindin et al. (2021) argue, inclusion policies alone are insufficient unless accompanied by consistent emotional validation and responsive guidance mechanisms. Universities must therefore strengthen empathy-driven faculty practices and mental health support to deepen students’ sense of belonging.

Results

Level of Instructional Supervision

The findings show that instructional supervision was generally rated high, with an overall mean of 3.92. Professional Development Support and Decision-Making and Goal Setting obtained the highest mean of 3.97, followed by Supervisory Practices with a mean of 3.83. These results indicate that teachers generally perceived the instructional supervision provided by school heads positively. The findings suggest that school heads demonstrate support through professional development opportunities, participation in decision-making, goal setting, and supervisory practices.

Level of Teacher Well-Being

The results indicate that teacher well-being was generally high, with an overall mean of 3.85. Among the dimensions, engagement had the highest mean (4.09), followed by Positive Emotion (4.02), meaning (3.96), Accomplishment (3.86), and Relationships (3.66). These findings suggest that teachers generally experience positive emotions, engagement, meaningfulness, and a sense of accomplishment in their work. However, Relationships received the lowest mean, although it remained within the high level. This highlights the importance of maintaining positive professional relationships and supportive interactions within the school environment.

Level of Teacher Performance

The findings reveal that teacher performance was generally high, with an overall mean of 3.71. Instructional delivery had the highest mean (3.80), followed by Classroom Management (3.69) and Professional Responsibilities (3.65). These results indicate that teachers generally demonstrate effective instructional practices, classroom management, and fulfillment of their professional responsibilities. Although Professional Responsibilities had the lowest mean among the dimensions, it remained at a high level.

Predictive Relationship of Instructional Supervision and Teacher Well-Being to Teacher Performance

Model Summary: R = .571; R² = .326; Adjusted R² = .318; F = 37.986; p < .001.

The regression analysis revealed that the overall model was statistically significant (F = 37.986, p < .001), indicating that instructional supervision and teacher well-being jointly predicted teacher performance. The coefficient of determination (R² = .326) shows that the two predictor variables explained 32.6% of the variance in teacher performance. The remaining 67.4% represents unexplained variance associated with factors not included in the present regression model.

When examined individually, teacher well-being emerged as a significant positive predictor of teacher performance (β = .568, t = 8.672, p < .001). This indicates that higher teacher well-being is associated with higher teacher performance when instructional supervision is held constant. The finding highlights the importance of teachers' positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and sense of accomplishment in their professional performance.

In contrast, instructional supervision was not a statistically significant individual predictor of teacher performance (β = -.053, t = -.809, p = .420). This means that instructional supervision did not significantly predict teacher performance when teacher well-being was also included in the regression model. However, this result does not imply that instructional supervision is unimportant. Rather, it indicates that its individual predictive contribution was not statistically significant within the present model.

Overall, the findings establish that the regression model was significant, but only teacher well-being significantly predicted teacher performance when both variables were considered simultaneously. Thus, the null hypothesis concerning teacher well-being as a predictor of teacher performance is rejected, while the null hypothesis concerning instructional supervision is not rejected.

Discussion

Overall Assessment of Instructional Supervision

The findings revealed that instructional supervision among public elementary school principals in the Central and West Districts of Misamis Oriental was generally high. Professional Development Support and Decision-Making and Goal Setting received the highest mean ratings, while Supervisory Practices obtained the lowest, although it remained within the high descriptive level. These findings indicate that principals generally provide support for teachers' professional growth and involvement in school-related decisions. However, the comparatively lower assessment of Supervisory Practices highlights the need to strengthen further instructional guidance, classroom observation, and constructive feedback. Personalized coaching and developmental discussions may help address teachers' instructional needs and improve supervisory support.

Teachers' Well-Being and Its Dimensions

Teachers reported a generally high level of well-being, with Engagement and Positive Emotion receiving the highest mean ratings, while Relationships obtained the lowest assessment. This suggests that teachers generally experience enthusiasm and positive feelings in their professional roles. However, the comparatively lower rating for Relationships emphasizes the importance of strengthening collegial relationships, social support, and interpersonal connections within the school community. These findings reflect the dimensions of Seligman's (2011) PERMA Theory of Well-Being, which emphasizes positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. Establishing peer collaboration activities and knowledge-sharing opportunities may further support teachers' well-being and professional relationships.

Assessment of Teacher Performance

The results showed that teacher performance was generally high, with Instructional Delivery receiving the highest mean rating, followed by Classroom Management and Professional Responsibilities. These findings suggest that teachers demonstrate competence in delivering lessons, managing classroom environments, and fulfilling their professional duties. However, the comparatively lower rating for Professional Responsibilities indicates an area that may benefit from continued administrative and professional support. Teachers may further strengthen their performance through ongoing professional development, collaborative problem-solving, and integrating higher-order thinking and student-centered strategies into their instruction.

Joint Predictive Contribution of Instructional Supervision and Teacher Well-Being

The regression analysis revealed that instructional supervision and teacher well-being jointly significantly predicted teacher performance. The model explained 32.6% of the variance in teacher performance, while the remaining 67.4% represented unexplained variance associated with factors not included in the study. This finding indicates that instructional supervision and teacher well-being should be considered together when examining variations in teacher performance. It also suggests that understanding teacher performance requires consideration of both the supervisory environment and teachers' personal and professional well-being.

Teacher Well-Being as a Significant Predictor of Teacher Performance

When examined individually, teacher well-being emerged as a significant positive predictor of teacher performance. This finding highlights the importance of teachers' positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and sense of accomplishment in their professional functioning. Teachers who experience higher levels of well-being may be better positioned to maintain engagement in their work and fulfill their professional responsibilities. In contrast, instructional supervision did not significantly predict teacher performance when considered alongside teacher well-being. However, this does not mean that instructional supervision is unimportant. Rather, its individual predictive contribution was not statistically significant within the present regression model.

Practical Implications for School Leadership and Professional Practice

The findings highlight the importance of strengthening instructional supervision while promoting teachers' well-being. School principals and administrators may prioritize personalized coaching and developmental discussions to address teachers' instructional needs. They may also establish peer collaboration networks and knowledge-sharing activities to strengthen professional relationships and provide administrative support in managing non-instructional responsibilities.

Teachers are encouraged to maintain emotional well-being, participate in professional development activities such as Learning Action Cell (LAC) sessions, and engage in collaborative problem-solving and peer-coaching. They may also continue improving their instructional practices by incorporating higher-order thinking activities and student-centered learning strategies into their lessons.

Directions for Future Research

The findings provide opportunities for further investigation into other factors that may help explain the remaining 67.4% of unexplained variance in teacher performance. Future researchers may examine variables such as teacher self-efficacy, workload, school climate, and organizational commitment. Qualitative research may also provide deeper, context-specific insights into teachers' experiences and possible reasons why instructional supervision did not emerge as a significant individual predictor of teacher performance in this study. Similar investigations may be conducted in other districts or school divisions to determine whether the findings are consistent across different educational settings.

Conclusion

The study demonstrates that instructional supervision, teacher well-being, and teacher performance were generally assessed at high levels among public elementary school teachers in the Central and West Districts of Misamis Oriental. The regression findings further established that instructional supervision and teacher well-being jointly significantly predicted teacher performance, although only teacher well-being emerged as a significant individual predictor. These results emphasize the importance of teachers' well-being in understanding professional performance while recognizing the continuing role of instructional supervision in the school environment. Overall, promoting teachers' well-being alongside effective supervisory practices may help support professional growth and improve teaching performance.